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Copyright
© 1999 by Bonnie Skaalid
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What
is Hypertext or Hypermedia?
The
name hypertext, or hypermedia, has been applied to
networks of nodes (also called articles, documents,
files, cards, pages, frames, screens) containing
information (in text, graphics, video, sound, and so on)
that are connected by links (also called pointers,
cross-references, citations). Hypertext is more commonly
applied to text-only applications whereas hypermedia is
used to convey the inclusion of other media, especially
sound and video ([3],
p. 553).
The
intrigue of hypertext is that it extends traditional
linear text with the opportunity for jumping to multiple
related articles. Convenient backtracking, clickable
indexes and tables of contents, string searching,
bookmarks, and other navigation tools profoundly alter
the reader's experience....hypertext authors need to
choose appropriate projects, to organize their articles
suitably, and to adjust their writing style to make the
best use of this new medium ([3],
p. 556).
The
largest hypermedia experiment of all time is happening right
in front of our eyes. Since the advent of the World Wide
Web, many people have been able to experience the
relatedness of the internet, with its accompanying problems
of disorientation.
Research
on Learning with Hypermedia
In
a review of hypermedia-based learning, Ayersman
[1]
discussed four strands of research into learning and
hypermedia: research based on perceptions or attitudes about
hypermedia; research based on individual differences or
learning styles; research based on system analyses (which
examined the most effective ways to structure hypermedia);
and, research based on performance which ranged from use of
pre-made software to the construction of one's own software.
His
conclusions:
- positive
attitude for hypermedia
- multimode
hypermedia can address different learning styles more
effectively than single-mode teaching
- hypermedia
is at least as effective as lecture and especially
effective with remedial and learning-disabled
students
- having
students construct their own hypermedia had benefits
which go much further than the acquisition of content;
one study reported increases in many higher level
cognitive processes such as "finding and interpreting
information, articulating and communicating knowledge,
and using computers as cognitive tools" (p.
516).
As
a counterbalance to this optimistic review of the potential
of hypermedia for learning, McKnight, Dillon &
Richardson [2]
provide a different viewpoint. After reviewing various
studies on learning and hypermedia, they
conclude:
- few
significant differences between results for linear
instruction and hypermedia
- need
to focus less on the process of learning and more on the
outcomes (student achievement)
- an
evolutionary approach to design based on user-centered
task-based design should be taken.
Guidelines
for Hypertext Creation
Shneiderman
[3]
provides the following guidelines for creating
hypertexts:
- Know
the user and their tasks.
- Ensure
that meaningful structure comes first.
- Apply
diverse skills (by including information specialists,
content specialists and technologists on the project
team).
- Respect
chunking. Organize information into chunks that deal with
one topic, theme or idea.
- Show
interrelationships (by using links to related
articles).
- Ensure
simplicity in traversal. Design the link structure so
that navigation is simple and consistent throughout the
system
- Design
each screen carefully.
Reduce
cognitive load by minimizing the burden on the user's short term memory.
You can do this by providing on-screen prompts such as icons or menus
rather than requiring the user to memorize terms or codes. The goal is
to enable users to concentrate on the contents while the computer vanishes
(p. 558-559).
[1] Ayersman, D.
(1996). Reviewing the research on hypermedia-based learning.
Journal of Research on Computing in Education,
28 (4). 500-525
[2] McKnight,
C., Dillon, A., & Richardson, J. (1966). User-centered
design of hypertext/hypermedia for education. In D. H.
Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of Research for Educational
Communications and Technology . New York: Simon and
Schuster Macmillan.
[3]
Shneiderman, B. (1998). Designing the user interface:
Strategies for effective human-computer interaction (3rd
ed.) . Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley
Publishing.
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